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Use Constraints
Original course & content comes from Washington State University Extension, Center to Bridge the Digital Divide.
The Social Constraints to the Ownership and Use of Telecommunication Technology for Development
In developing countries there are various social problems, which create barriers to people owning and using telecommunications and ICTs. These problems, amongst others, include illiteracy, cultural barriers, lack of computer skills and technological know-how, lack of access to computers and computers networks as a result of the digital divide, no Internet access, lack of significant usage opportunities, background to increasing information equality and structural information equality. Let us look at these problems closely.
Illiteracy
In most developing countries there is still a high percentage of uneducated people. South Africa is no exception as illiteracy rates are very high and people, especially the young have to go to school and attend institutions of higher learning to get good education. Part of this education includes acquiring computer literacy and technical skill to operate and use computers at different levels, i.e. whether to conduct research over the Internet, upgrade the computer's storage capacity, store information in databases or use the computer for other functions. Illiteracy will be drastically reduced if technical or computer skills are imparted to most members of society. People should not just gain access to computers, but should also learn various computer applications so that they can be employable which will reduce the high unemployment rate in South Africa. South Africa's unemployment rate is over 40,0 percent while that of Japan is said to be just 2,0 percent and that of Hong Kong 3,0 percent.
Cultural Barriers
In some developing countries, there are still some people who are barred from using telecommunications technology due to cultural beliefs. Some have "computer fear" and Van Dijk (1999:148) states that those who fear computers shrink back because they think it is too difficult to use them or because their first experience with such devices have been too unpleasant. It is possible that some do not use computers because of ignorance or may not be aware of how computers can help them. With regard to the latter, these groups can then be given access to computers either by the public or private sector organisations and can be taught how to use computers and shown how computers can help them. Most literature suggests that young people tend to use computers more than old people, so age can also be a determining factor about who uses computers and who do not.
Lack of Computer Skills and Technological Know-How
This is another problem in most developing areas, especially rural areas of Africa. Computer skills are lacking in some people and this problem can be remedied once telecommunication infrastructures have been established in their areas of residence and in addition to that they get access to computers and computer skills imparted to them by those who have this technical know-how.
Lack of Access to Computers and Computers Networks as a Result of the Digital Divide
The digital divide has created a bridge between rural and urban areas in most parts of the developing world.
No Internet Access
The Internet is a good educational tool but can be expensive for poor members of society to afford in terms of paying for all the monthly connections to the Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Mbarika (2002) has already stated that most least - developed countries in Africa do not have access to the Internet, which will add to their slow development and this is exacerbated by poor telecommunications infrastructures and low teledensities. Should people have access to the Internet, they can access a wealth of information from this global service and develop many aspects of their lives. The Internet was started in 1983 in the United States of America as a military project and developed as an academic and research network. Ivala (2000) states that the most used, liked and commercially successful form of computer communication is the Internet. The Internet is a global network of networks linking thousands of computer networks together. These computer networks are joined together by telephone lines. The Internet was established at the end of the cold war by the United States military to ensure continued communications between the military and various branches of government. Now, however, its uses have far outgrown its creator's intentions (Ivala 2000:24).
As stated earlier, the Internet had its origins as a US military project back in 1969. It was adopted by the research and academic community; became the tool (or toy) of computer lovers around the world and then, in the space of a couple of years, it became the engine that, it is claimed, to propel the world into the information age and the twenty-first century, or the New Millenium which started in the year 2000.The use of the Internet by members of the general public and the commercial use of the Internet is a relatively recent phenomenon. The latter involves service providers, content providers and software facilities. Computer communication technologies like computers are used for various purposes including marketing products, education, government and political communication, research, tele-education and health communication. The web is a big place, and tens of thousands of people have put hundreds of thousands of hours into making it enjoyable. The vast majority of them have not made any money from their work yet, and many did it for the joy of starting something new (Whiteley 2000:161). The Internet is also an interesting phenomenon because nobody owns it. It is unlike the railway, telegraph or telephone companies of the past that were owned by large private corporations or state monopolies. It is a pattern of usage of information and communications technologies (ICTs) that transcends any and all telecommunications infrastructure providers.
Lack of Significant Usage Opportunities
The fact that rural people, who form a large part of the inhabitants of developing countries, have no access to telecommunication technologies and other ICTs deny them the opportunities to interact and familiarise themselves with such devices. This is because such devices are not readily available to them where they are located. On the other hand, it is easier for someone residing in a township to get access to a telephone and a fax machine. South African rural areas with telecentres, such as Ndevana , Flagstaff, Tongo near the Wild Coast and Middledrift in the Eastern Cape, can have easy access to ICTs located in the telecentres, if these telecentres are fully functional and without access problems and network cut-offs.
Background to Increasing Information Equality and Structural Information Equality
In South Africa there is also the added problem that was created by the apartheid regime of developing the telecommunication structures in some areas (those where whites used to live exclusively), and not developing this technology infrastructure in formerly black-only areas and in former homelands. The present system of government is trying to undo this state of affairs and speedily develop telecommunication infrastructure in all parts of South Africa. India is another country where the telephone was regarded as a luxury, before the 1996 Indian telecommunications policy was enacted. After the enactment of that policy, and subsequent policies, telecommunications in India is now provided to all the previously unserved areas. You can read the article by Chibber (2002), on India's new telecommunications policy, which is aimed at providing a universal service (provide services to all who need them, rural or urban) to Indian people.
Developed countries assist in the development of LDCs in various ICT projects and other development projects. This role should be emphasized here because developed countries have the financial or economic muscle to provide development aid to LDCs without compromising their own financial standing or development plans. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), with many developed country members, which assist developing countries with the development of telecommunications infrastructures of many LDCs, is a notable example. Also, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) develops various ICT projects in African and Asian countries, such as the development of telecentres. South Africa's President Thabo Mbeki has addressed the G8 countries on numerous occasions (for example in Brussels in 1995 and in Canada in 2002), about the need for the G8 countries to assist developing countries in their development programmes and activities, and project implementation towards sustainable development. In Canada, President Mbeki explained to the G8 the importance of the New Economic Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) for African development and how the G8 could assist Africa towards the implementation of NEPAD's projects. NEPAD's objectives amongst other objectives are:
Spearheaded by the heads of state of South Africa, Nigeria and Senegal among other countries, NEPAD is the first African development programme, which has received support both from the developed and developing world, aimed at promoting sustainable African development. This cooperation between developed and developing countries in NEPAD is an application of the participatory theory of development communication where development goals and strategies are negotiated between all parties (those being developed and those who are developing others) involved in the development project. NEPAD's prime policy is that Africa put its own house in order first, before development in Africa can be achievable and in turn sustainable, and before other countries can assist in this sustainable development. The next sub-section discusses telecommunications' role in economic development.
The Social Constraints to the Ownership and Use of Telecommunication Technology for Development
In developing countries there are various social problems, which create barriers to people owning and using telecommunications and ICTs. These problems, amongst others, include illiteracy, cultural barriers, lack of computer skills and technological know-how, lack of access to computers and computers networks as a result of the digital divide, no Internet access, lack of significant usage opportunities, background to increasing information equality and structural information equality. Let us look at these problems closely.
Illiteracy
In most developing countries there is still a high percentage of uneducated people. South Africa is no exception as illiteracy rates are very high and people, especially the young have to go to school and attend institutions of higher learning to get good education. Part of this education includes acquiring computer literacy and technical skill to operate and use computers at different levels, i.e. whether to conduct research over the Internet, upgrade the computer's storage capacity, store information in databases or use the computer for other functions. Illiteracy will be drastically reduced if technical or computer skills are imparted to most members of society. People should not just gain access to computers, but should also learn various computer applications so that they can be employable which will reduce the high unemployment rate in South Africa. South Africa's unemployment rate is over 40,0 percent while that of Japan is said to be just 2,0 percent and that of Hong Kong 3,0 percent.
Cultural Barriers
In some developing countries, there are still some people who are barred from using telecommunications technology due to cultural beliefs. Some have "computer fear" and Van Dijk (1999:148) states that those who fear computers shrink back because they think it is too difficult to use them or because their first experience with such devices have been too unpleasant. It is possible that some do not use computers because of ignorance or may not be aware of how computers can help them. With regard to the latter, these groups can then be given access to computers either by the public or private sector organisations and can be taught how to use computers and shown how computers can help them. Most literature suggests that young people tend to use computers more than old people, so age can also be a determining factor about who uses computers and who do not.
Lack of Computer Skills and Technological Know-How
This is another problem in most developing areas, especially rural areas of Africa. Computer skills are lacking in some people and this problem can be remedied once telecommunication infrastructures have been established in their areas of residence and in addition to that they get access to computers and computer skills imparted to them by those who have this technical know-how.
Lack of Access to Computers and Computers Networks as a Result of the Digital Divide
The digital divide has created a bridge between rural and urban areas in most parts of the developing world.
No Internet Access
The Internet is a good educational tool but can be expensive for poor members of society to afford in terms of paying for all the monthly connections to the Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Mbarika (2002) has already stated that most least - developed countries in Africa do not have access to the Internet, which will add to their slow development and this is exacerbated by poor telecommunications infrastructures and low teledensities. Should people have access to the Internet, they can access a wealth of information from this global service and develop many aspects of their lives. The Internet was started in 1983 in the United States of America as a military project and developed as an academic and research network. Ivala (2000) states that the most used, liked and commercially successful form of computer communication is the Internet. The Internet is a global network of networks linking thousands of computer networks together. These computer networks are joined together by telephone lines. The Internet was established at the end of the cold war by the United States military to ensure continued communications between the military and various branches of government. Now, however, its uses have far outgrown its creator's intentions (Ivala 2000:24).
As stated earlier, the Internet had its origins as a US military project back in 1969. It was adopted by the research and academic community; became the tool (or toy) of computer lovers around the world and then, in the space of a couple of years, it became the engine that, it is claimed, to propel the world into the information age and the twenty-first century, or the New Millenium which started in the year 2000.The use of the Internet by members of the general public and the commercial use of the Internet is a relatively recent phenomenon. The latter involves service providers, content providers and software facilities. Computer communication technologies like computers are used for various purposes including marketing products, education, government and political communication, research, tele-education and health communication. The web is a big place, and tens of thousands of people have put hundreds of thousands of hours into making it enjoyable. The vast majority of them have not made any money from their work yet, and many did it for the joy of starting something new (Whiteley 2000:161). The Internet is also an interesting phenomenon because nobody owns it. It is unlike the railway, telegraph or telephone companies of the past that were owned by large private corporations or state monopolies. It is a pattern of usage of information and communications technologies (ICTs) that transcends any and all telecommunications infrastructure providers.
Lack of Significant Usage Opportunities
The fact that rural people, who form a large part of the inhabitants of developing countries, have no access to telecommunication technologies and other ICTs deny them the opportunities to interact and familiarise themselves with such devices. This is because such devices are not readily available to them where they are located. On the other hand, it is easier for someone residing in a township to get access to a telephone and a fax machine. South African rural areas with telecentres, such as Ndevana , Flagstaff, Tongo near the Wild Coast and Middledrift in the Eastern Cape, can have easy access to ICTs located in the telecentres, if these telecentres are fully functional and without access problems and network cut-offs.
Background to Increasing Information Equality and Structural Information Equality
In South Africa there is also the added problem that was created by the apartheid regime of developing the telecommunication structures in some areas (those where whites used to live exclusively), and not developing this technology infrastructure in formerly black-only areas and in former homelands. The present system of government is trying to undo this state of affairs and speedily develop telecommunication infrastructure in all parts of South Africa. India is another country where the telephone was regarded as a luxury, before the 1996 Indian telecommunications policy was enacted. After the enactment of that policy, and subsequent policies, telecommunications in India is now provided to all the previously unserved areas. You can read the article by Chibber (2002), on India's new telecommunications policy, which is aimed at providing a universal service (provide services to all who need them, rural or urban) to Indian people.
Developed countries assist in the development of LDCs in various ICT projects and other development projects. This role should be emphasized here because developed countries have the financial or economic muscle to provide development aid to LDCs without compromising their own financial standing or development plans. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), with many developed country members, which assist developing countries with the development of telecommunications infrastructures of many LDCs, is a notable example. Also, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) develops various ICT projects in African and Asian countries, such as the development of telecentres. South Africa's President Thabo Mbeki has addressed the G8 countries on numerous occasions (for example in Brussels in 1995 and in Canada in 2002), about the need for the G8 countries to assist developing countries in their development programmes and activities, and project implementation towards sustainable development. In Canada, President Mbeki explained to the G8 the importance of the New Economic Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) for African development and how the G8 could assist Africa towards the implementation of NEPAD's projects. NEPAD's objectives amongst other objectives are:
- the development of African countries through the use of ICTs
- the ending of wars in Africa
- the improvement of African economies and job-creation where ICTs are viewed as key economic enablers in that regard
- the promotion of good governance and democratic principles in some African countries such as Zimbabwe.
Spearheaded by the heads of state of South Africa, Nigeria and Senegal among other countries, NEPAD is the first African development programme, which has received support both from the developed and developing world, aimed at promoting sustainable African development. This cooperation between developed and developing countries in NEPAD is an application of the participatory theory of development communication where development goals and strategies are negotiated between all parties (those being developed and those who are developing others) involved in the development project. NEPAD's prime policy is that Africa put its own house in order first, before development in Africa can be achievable and in turn sustainable, and before other countries can assist in this sustainable development. The next sub-section discusses telecommunications' role in economic development.
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